1. Biography
Caius Octavius was born in Rome on 23rd of September 63 BC. His career started with his adoption by Julius Caesar, after which he was named Octavian. After the murder of Julius Caesar, Octavian forced the senate to bestow him with the consulate. On Novemer 11th 43 BC, he constituted the second triumvirate together with Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus; the goal was to take revenge on the murder of Caesar. Octavian took possession over Rome and Italy, but his and Marc Antony’s interests were drifting apart as soon as the latter married Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. This led to civil war and the ultimate battle of Actium, in which Marc Antony and Cleopatra were decisively defeated.
So as not to make the same mistake as Caesar, Octavian officially restored the Republic, but kept some privileges like the high command of the army, the tribunician power and a power of veto in the senate, which allowed him to further lead the empire. Augustus, as he now was named after a decree of honour of the Senate, soon became very popular and left behind his throne to his adopted son Tiberius after a long reign of more than forty years. He died on 19th of August 14 AD.


2. Coinage
2.1. Some general notes
In 23 BC, Augustus undertook a major currency reform. The ratio between the denominations was set as follows:
1 Aureus = 25 Denarii = 100 Sestertii = 200 Dupondii = 400 Asses = 800 Semisses = 1600 Quadrantes

The Aureus weighed 1/41 Roman pound, which was 7.96 grams. In reality, the weight varied between 7.70 and 8 grams. Only few purity tests have been done, they showed that the gold content of the Aureus was very high. The following mints issued Aurei (and Multipla):
• Colonia Caesaraugusta: 19-18 BC
• Colonia Patricia: 20-16 BC
• Lugdunum: 15-6 BC, 6-9 AD and 13-14 AD
• Rome: 32-29 BC (uncertain), 19 BC, 17-16 BC
and 13-12 BC (19-12 BC with moneyers' names)
• Pergamum: 19-18 BC
• Cyrenaica: 31-30/29 BC

The Denarius had a standard weight of 1/84 Roman pound = 3.99 grams but usually weighed between 3.60 and 4.00 grams. The silver content usually was between 96.25 and 98 %. Denarii were minted by the following mints:
• Emerita: 25-23 BC
• Colonia Caesaraugusta: 19-18 BC
• Colonia Patricia: 20/19-17/16 BC
• Lugdunum: 15-6 BC
• Rome: as aureus
• Peloponnesus: 21 BC
• Samos: 21-20 BC

After the opening of a mint at Lugdunum in 15 BC, Augustus displaced all the noble metal issues to the new mint, in order to get more independent of the Rome mint.

The Sestertius had a standard weight of 1/13 Roman pound, but ususally weighed between 24.00 and 26.50 grams. It was issued in aurichalcum:
• Rome: 18-15 BC
• Ephesus: 25 BC
• Pergamum: 28-15 BC

The Dupondius, also issued in aurichalcum, had a standard weight of 1/26 Roman pound, but usually weighed between 11.00 and 13.50 grams. It was issued by the following mints:
• Emerita: 25-23 BC
• Nemausus: 20-10 BC
• Lugdunum: 9-14 AD
• Rome: 18-15 BC and 7 BC
• Pergamum: 28-15 BC

The As, issued in red Zypriotic copper, had a standard weight of 1/30 Roman pound while usually weighing 9-12.00 grams. It was issued by the following mints:
• Emerita: 25-23 BC
• Nemausus: 20 BC - 14 AD
• Lugdunum : 15-10 BC and 9-14 AD
• Rome: 16-15 BC, 7-6 BC and 10-12 AD

The Semis, having a standard weight of 5.55 g, was only issued in Lugdunum from 9-14 AD, because the Quadrantes, weighing 2.90-3.30 grams, sufficiently covered the need of small change. The latter was issued in Lugdunum (15-10 BC), Treveri (?) and Rome (9-8 and 5-4 BC).

2.2. Portrait
Augustus' portrait usually was rather graceful and with a narrow neck. As time went by, his portrait was more and more idealized, so that even at the age of seventy, he still looked like thirty on his coins.

Different portrait-types of Augustus (Denarii).

29 BC	21-20 BC	2 v. - 4 AD

2.3. The Types
Most of Augustus' precious metal issues referred to victories and honours he had achieved during his reign. Many also glorified his adoptive father Caesar or portrayed his friend Agrippa, his grandchildren Caius and Lucius or his stepson Tiberius.

The Denarius shown here (struck 19-18 BC at Caesaraugusta) is a good example of the deification of Caesar. The obverse shows Augustus' head, wearing an oak wreath, while the reverse shows an eight-rayed comet (sidus Iulium) with a tail and the legend DIVVS IVLIVS.

The AE coinage issued by Augustus usually is far less impressive. This Sestertius has an oak wreath between two palm-branches and the legend OB CIVIS SERVATOS (for the protection of the citizens) on the obverse, while the reverse shows the legend T QVINCTIVS CRISPIN SVLPIC III VIR AAAFF surrounding a large S C ("Senatus Consulto", by the decree of the senate). The monneyer's name thus is T. Quinctius Crispinus Sulpicianus. III VIR AAAFF stands for III VIR A(ere) A(rgento) A(uro) F(lando) F(eriundo), which shows that the monneyer was member of the council to cast and strike bronze, silver and gold.

2.4. Coins